The Netherlands had a considerable part in the making of modern society. Dutch-speaking peoplein spite of their relatively small numberhave a significant history of inventioninnovationdiscovery and exploration. Until the fall of Antwerpthe Dutch and Flemish were generally seen as one people.

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The De Stijl school proposed simplicity and abstraction, both in architecture and painting, by using only straight horizontal and vertical lines and rectangular forms. Furthermore, their formal vocabulary was limited to the primary colours, red, yellow, and blue and the three primary values, black, white and grey. Brabantine Gothicoccasionally called Brabantian Gothicis a significant variant of Gothic architecture that is typical for the Low Countries.

It surfaced in the first half of the 14th century at Saint Rumbold's Cathedral in the City of Mechelen. The Brabantine Gothic style originated with the advent of the Duchy of Brabant and spread across the Burgundian Netherlands. The Dutch gable was a notable feature of the Dutch-Flemish Renaissance architecture or Northern Mannerist architecture that spread to northern Europe from the Low Countriesarriving in Britain during the latter part of the 16th century.

Later Dutch gables with flowing curves became absorbed into Baroque architecture. The style spread beyond Europe, for example Barbados is well known for Dutch gables on its historic buildings. Dutch settlers in South Africa brought with them building styles from the Netherlands: Dutch gables, then adjusted to the Western Cape region where the style became known as Cape Dutch architecture. Antwerp Mannerism is the name given to the style of a largely anonymous group of painters from Antwerp in the beginning of the 16th century.

The style bore no direct relation to Renaissance or Italian Mannerismbut the name suggests a peculiarity that was a reaction to the classic style of the early Netherlandish painting. Antwerp Mannerism may also be used to describe the style of architecture, which is loosely Manneristdeveloped in Antwerp by aboutwhich was then influential all over Northern Europe.

Cape Dutch architecture is an architectural style found in the Western Cape of South Africa. The style was prominent in the early days 17th century of the Cape Colonyand the name derives from the fact that the initial settlers of the Cape were primarily Dutch.

The style has roots in medieval Netherlands, Germany, France and Indonesia. Houses in this style have a distinctive and recognisable design, with a prominent feature being the grand, ornately rounded gablesreminiscent of features in townhouses of Amsterdam built in the Dutch style. The Amsterdam School Dutch: Amsterdamse School flourished from through about in the Netherlands. The Amsterdam School movement is part of international Expressionist architecturesometimes linked to German Brick Expressionism.

It became a listed monument in and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in The rectilinear lines and planes flow from outside to inside, with the same colour palette and surfaces. Inside is a dynamic, changeable open zone rather than a static accumulation of rooms. The house is one of the best known examples of De Stijl architecture and arguably the only true De Stijl building. The Van Nelle factory was built between and The factory was designed on the premise that a modern, transparent and healthy working environment in green surroundings would be good both for production and for workers' welfare.

The factory had a huge impact on the development of modern architecture in Europe and elsewhere. The Van Nelle Factory is a Dutch national monument Rijksmonument and since has the status of UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Justification of Outstanding Universal Value was presented in to the UNESCO World Heritage Committee.

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An architectural movement started by a generation of new architects during theamong this generation of architects were OMA, MVRDV, UNStudio, Mecanoo, Meyer en Van Schooten and many more. They started with buildings, which became internationally known for their new and refreshing style. After which Super Dutch Architecture spread out across the globe. The Dutch door also known as stable door or half door is a type of door divided horizontally in such a fashion that the bottom half may remain shut while the top half opens.

The initial purpose of this door was to keep animals out of farmhouses, while keeping children inside, yet allowing light and air to filter through the open top. This type of door was common in the Netherlands in the seventeenth century and appears in Dutch paintings of the period. They were commonly found in Dutch areas of New York and New Jersey before the American Revolution and in South Africa. The Red and Blue Chair was designed in by Gerrit Rietveld. It represents one of the first explorations by the De Stijl art movement in three dimensions.

It features several Rietveld joints. The Zig-Zag Chair was designed by Rietveld in It is a minimalist design without legs, made by 4 flat wooden tiles that are merged in a Z-shape using Dovetail joints.

Although oil paint was first used for Buddhist paintings by Indian and Chinese painters sometime between the fifth and tenth centuries, it did not gain notoriety until the 15th century. Its practice may have migrated westward during the Middle Ages. Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. The transition began with Early Netherlandish painting in northern Europe, and by the height of the Renaissance oil painting techniques had almost completely replaced tempera paints in the majority of Europe.

Early Netherlandish painting Jan van Eyck in particular in the 15th century was the first to make oil the default painting medium, and to explore the use of layers and glazesfollowed by the rest of Northern Europe, and only then Italy. Glazing is a technique employed by painters since the invention of modern oil painting. Early Netherlandish painters in the 15th century were the first to make oil the usual painting medium, and explore the use of layers and glazesfollowed by the rest of Northern Europe, and only then Italy.

Two aspects of realism were rooted in at least two centuries of Dutch tradition: Two hundred years before the rise of literary realism, Dutch painters had already made an art of the everyday — pictures that served as a compelling model for the later novelists. By the mids, 17th-century Dutch painting figured virtually everywhere in the British and French fiction we esteem today as the vanguard of realism.

Hieronymus Bosch is considered one of the prime examples of Pre-Surrealism. The surrealists relied most on his insights. In the 20th century, Bosch's paintings e.

The Garden of Earthly DelightsThe HaywainThe Temptation of St. Anthony and The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things were cited by the Surrealists as precursors to their own visions.

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Still-life painting as an independent genre or specialty first flourished in the Netherlands in the last quarter of the 16th century, and the English term derives from stilleven: The term " landscape " derives from the Dutch word landschapwhich originally meant "region, tract of land" but acquired the artistic connotation, "a picture depicting scenery on land" in the early 16th century.

After the fall of the Roman Empirethe tradition of depicting pure landscapes declined and the landscape was seen only as a setting for religious and figural scenes. This tradition continued until the 16th century when artists began to view the landscape as a subject in its own right. The Dutch Golden Age painting of the 17th century saw the dramatic growth of landscape paintingin which many artists specialized, and the development of extremely subtle realist techniques for depicting light and weather.

The Flemish Renaissance painter Pieter Brueghel the Elder chose peasants and their activities as the subject of many paintings. Genre painting flourished in Northern Europe in his wake. Adriaen van OstadeDavid TeniersAelbert CuypJan SteenJohannes Vermeer and Pieter de Hooch were among many painters specializing in genre subjects in the Netherlands during the 17th century. The generally small scale of these artists' paintings was appropriate for their display in the homes of middle class purchasers.

Marine painting began in keeping with medieval Christian art tradition. Such works portrayed the sea only from a bird's eye view, and everything, even the waves, was organized and symmetrical. The viewpoint, symmetry and overall order of these early paintings underlined the organization of the heavenly cosmos from which the earth was viewed.

Later Dutch artists such as Hendrick Cornelisz VroomCornelius Claesz, Abraham StorckJan PorcellisSimon de VliegerWillem van de Velde the ElderWillem van de Velde the Younger and Ludolf Bakhuizen developed new methods for painting, often from a horizontal point of view, with a lower horizon and more focus on realism than symmetry. The term vanitas is most often associated with still life paintings that were popular in seventeenth-century Dutch art, produced by the artists such as Pieter Claesz.

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Common vanitas symbols included skulls a reminder of the certainty of death ; rotten fruit decay ; bubbles, brevity of life and suddenness of death ; smoke, watches, and hourglasses, the brevity of life ; and musical instruments the brevity and ephemeral nature of life. Fruit, flowers and butterflies can be interpreted in the same way, while a peeled lemon, as well as the typical accompanying seafood was, like life, visually attractive but with a bitter flavor.

Group portraits were produced in great numbers during the Baroque periodparticularly in the Netherlands. Unlike in the rest of Europe, Dutch artists received no commissions from the Calvinist Church which had forbidden such images or from the aristocracy which was virtually non-existent. Instead, commissions came from civic and businesses associations. Dutch painter Frans Hals used fluid brush strokes of vivid color to enliven his group portraitsincluding those of the civil guard to which he belonged.

Rembrandt benefitted greatly from such commissions and from the general appreciation of art by bourgeois clients, who supported portraiture as well as still-life and landscape painting.

Notably, the world's first significant art and dealer markets flourished in Holland at that time. They were conceived more for art's sake than to satisfy conventions. The tronie was a distinctive type of paintingcombining elements of the portraithistory, and genre painting.

This was usually a half-length of a single figure which concentrated on capturing an unusual mood or expression. The actual identity of the model was not supposed to be important, but they might represent a historical figure and be in exotic or historic costume.

In contrast to portraits" tronies " were painted for the open market. They differ from figurative paintings and religious figures in that they are not restricted to a moral or narrative context. Rembrandt lighting is a lighting technique that is used in studio portrait photography. It can be achieved using one light and a reflector, or two lights, and is popular because it is capable of producing images which appear both natural and compelling with a minimum of equipment.

Rembrandt lighting is characterized by an illuminated triangle under the eye of the subject, on the less illuminated side of the face.

It is named for the Dutch painter Rembrandtwho often used this type of lighting in his portrait paintings. The first known mezzotint was done in Amsterdam in by Utrecht -born German artist Ludwig von Siegen. He lived in Amsterdam from to aboutwhen he was supposedly influenced by Rembrandt. The painter and printmaker Jan van de Velde is often credited to be the inventor of the aquatint technique, in Amsterdam around Pronkstilleven pronk still life or ostentatious still life is a type of banquet piece whose distinguishing feature is a quality of ostentation and splendor.

These still lifes usually depict one or more especially precious objects. Although the term is a postth century invention, this type is characteristic of the second half of the seventeenth century. It was developed in the s in Antwerp from where it spread quickly to the Dutch Republic. Flemish artists such as Frans Snyders and Adriaen van Utrecht started to paint still lifes that emphasized abundance by depicting a diversity of objects, fruits, flowers and dead game, often together with living people and animals.

The style was soon adopted by artists from the Dutch Republic. Vincent van Gogh 's work is most often associated with Post-Impressionismbut his innovative style had a vast influence on 20th-century art and established what would later be known as Expressionismalso greatly influencing fauvism and early abstractionism.

His impact on German and Austrian Expressionists was especially profound. In his final letter to TheoVan Gogh stated that, as he had no children, he viewed his paintings as his progeny. Reflecting on this, the British art historian Simon Schama concluded that he "did have a child of course, Expressionism, and many, many heirs.

Dutch graphic artist Maurits Cornelis Escherusually referred to as M. Escher, is known for his often mathematically inspired woodcutslithographsand mezzotints.

These feature impossible constructionsexplorations of infinityarchitecture and tessellations. His special way of thinking and rich graphic work has had a continuous influence in science and art, as well as permeating popular culture. His ideas have been used in fields as diverse as psychologyphilosophylogic, crystallography and topology. Miffy Nijntje is a small female rabbit in a series of picture books drawn and written by Dutch artist Dick Bruna. In music, the Franco-Flemish School or more precisely the Netherlandish School refers to the style of polyphonic vocal music composition in the Burgundian Netherlands in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and to the composers who wrote it.

The Venetian School of polychoral music was founded by the Netherlandish composer Adrian Willaert. Hardcore or hardcore techno is a subgenre of electronic dance music originating in Europe from the emergent raves in the s. It was initially designed at Rotterdam in Netherlandsderived from techno. Hardstyle is an electronic dance genre mixing influences from hardtechno and hardcore.

Hardstyle was influenced by gabber. Hardstyle has its origins in the Netherlands where artists like DJ ZanyLady DanaDJ Isaac, DJ Pavo, DJ Luna and The Prophetwho produced hardcore, started experimenting while playing their hardcore records. Holsteins or Holstein-Friesians are a breed of cattle known today as the world's highest-production dairy animals. Originating in Europe, Holstein-Friesians were bred in the two northern provinces of North Holland and Frieslandand Schleswig-Holstein in what became Germany.

The animals were the regional cattle of the Frisians and the Saxons. The origins of the breed can be traced to the black cows and white cows of the Batavians and Frisians — migrant tribes who settled the coastal Rhine region more than two thousand years ago.

Forerunners to modern Brussels sprouts were likely cultivated in ancient Rome. Brussels sprouts as we now know them were grown possibly as early as the 13th century in the Low Countries may have originated in Brussels. The first written reference dates to During the 16th century, they enjoyed a popularity in the Southern Netherlands that eventually spread throughout the cooler parts of Northern Europe.

They were blackpurplewhite, brownred and yellow. Probably orange too, but this was not the dominant colour. Orange-coloured carrots appeared in the Netherlands in the 16th century. They succeeded by cross-breeding pale yellow with red carrots. It is more likely that Dutch horticulturists actually found an orange rooted mutant variety and then worked on its development through selective breeding to make the plant consistent. Through successive hybridisation the orange colour intensified.

This was developed to become the dominant species across the world, a sweet orange. Belle de Boskoop is an apple cultivar which, as its name suggests, originated in Boskoopwhere it began as a chance seedling in There are many variants: Boskoop red, yellow or green. This rustic apple is firm, tart and fragrant. Greenish-gray tinged with red, the apple stands up well to cooking.

Generally Boskoop varieties are very high in acid content and can contain more than four times the vitamin C of ' Granny Smith ' or ' Golden Delicious '. Karmijn de Sonnaville is a variety of apple bred by Piet de Sonnaville, working in Wageningen in It is a cross of Cox's Orange Pippin and Jonathanand was first grown commercially beginning in It is high both in sugars including some sucrose and acidity.

It is a triploidand hence needs good pollination, and can be difficult to grow. It also suffers from fruit russetwhich can be severe. Elstar apple is an apple cultivar that was first developed in the Netherlands in the s by crossing Golden Delicious and Ingrid Marie apples. It quickly became popular, especially in Europe and was first introduced to America in The Elstar is a medium-sized apple whose skin is mostly red with yellow showing.

The flesh is white, and has a soft, crispy texture. It may be used for cooking and is especially good for making apple sauce. In general, however, it is used in desserts due to its sweet flavour.

The Groasis Waterboxx is a device designed to help grow trees in dry areas. It was developed by former flower exporter Pieter Hoffand won Popular Science 's "Green Tech Best of What's New" Innovation of the year award for The Dutch-Frisian geographer Gemma Frisius was the first to propose the use of a chronometer to determine longitude in In his book On the Principles of Astronomy and CosmographyFrisius explains for the first time how to use a very accurate clock to determine longitude.

Inthe British clock-builder John Harrison constructed the first marine chronometerwhich allowed the method developed by Frisius. Triangulation had first emerged as a map-making method in the mid sixteenth century when the Dutch-Frisian mathematician Gemma Frisius set out the idea in his Libellus de locorum describendorum ratione Booklet concerning a way of describing places. The modern systematic use of triangulation networks stems from the work of the Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snell born Willebrord Snel van Royenwho in surveyed the distance from Alkmaar to Bergen op Zoomapproximately 70 miles kilometresusing a chain of quadrangles containing 33 triangles in all [73] [74] [75] — a feat celebrated in the title of his book Eratosthenes Batavus The Dutch Eratosthenespublished in The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by the Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator in It became the standard map projection for nautical purposes because of its ability to represent lines of constant courseknown as rhumb lines or loxodromes, as straight segments which conserve the angles with the meridians.

Flemish geographer and cartographer Abraham Ortelius generally recognized as the creator of the world's first modern atlasthe Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Theatre of the World. Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum is considered the first true atlas in the modern sense: It is sometimes referred to as the summary of sixteenth-century cartography. This atlas was the first attempt to systematically codify nautical maps. This chart-book combined an atlas of nautical charts and sailing directions with instructions for navigation on the western and north-western coastal waters of Europe.

It was the first of its kind in the history of maritime cartography, and was an immediate success. The English translation of Waghenaer's work was published in and became so popular that any volume of sea charts soon became known as a "waggoner", the Anglicized form of Waghenaer's surname. Gerardus Mercator was the first to coin the word atlas to describe a bound collection of maps through his own collection entitled "Atlas sive Cosmographicae meditationes de fabrica mvndi et fabricati figvra".

He coined this name after the Greek god who held the earth in his arms. The constellations around the South Pole were not observable from north of the equatorby Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese or Arabs. The modern constellations in this region were defined during the Age of Explorationnotably by Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman at the end of sixteenth century. These twelve Dutch-created southern constellations represented flora and fauna of the East Indies and Madagascar.

They were depicted by Johann Bayer in his star atlas Uranometria of Among the IAU 's 88 modern constellationsthere are 15 Dutch-created constellations including ApusCamelopardalisChamaeleonColumbaDoradoGrusHydrusIndusMonocerosMuscaPavoPhoenixTriangulum AustraleTucana and Volans. The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in The concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in Because Wegener's publications were widely available in German and English and because he adduced geological support for the idea, he is credited by most geologists as the first to recognize the possibility of continental drift.

During the s geophysical and geological evidence for seafloor spreading at mid-oceanic ridges established continental drift as the standard theory or continental origin and an ongoing global mechanism.

While making a coloured liquid for a thermometerCornelis Drebbel dropped a flask of Aqua regia on a tin window sill, and discovered that stannous chloride makes the color of carmine much brighter and more durable. Though Drebbel himself never made much from his work, his daughters Anna and Catharina and his sons-in-law Abraham and Johannes Sibertus Kuffler set up a successful dye works.

One was set up in in Bow, Londonand the resulting color was called bow dye. Dutch chemical company DSM invented and patented the Dyneema in Dyneema fibres have been in commercial production since at their plant at Heerlen.

These fibers are manufactured by means of a gel-spinning process that combines extreme strength with incredible softness. Dyneema fibres, based on ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene UHMWPEis used in many applications in markets such as life protection, shipping, fishing, offshore, sailing, medical and textiles.

In Philips invented the compact audio cassette medium for audio storageintroducing it in Europe in August at the Berlin Radio Show and in the United States under the Norelco brand in Novemberwith the trademark name Compact Cassette.

Laserdisc technologyusing a transparent disc, [97] was invented by David Paul Gregg in and patented in and MCA and Philips decided to join forces. They first publicly demonstrated the videodisc in Laserdisc entered the market in Atlanta, on 15 Decembertwo years after the VHS VCR and four years before the CDwhich is based on Laserdisc technology.

Philips produced the players and MCA made the discs. The compact disc was jointly developed by Philips Joop Sinjou and Sony Toshitada Doi.

In the early s, Philips' researchers started experiments with "audio-only" optical discs, and at the end of the s, PhilipsSonyand other companies presented prototypes of digital audio discs. Bluetootha low-energy, peer-to-peer wireless technology was originally developed by Dutch electrical engineer Jaap Haartsen and Swedish engineer Sven Mattisson in the s, working at Ericsson in LundSweden. It became a global standard of short distance wireless connection.

Dutch electrical engineer Vic Hayes chaired IEEE He has been called the father of Wi-Fi the brand name for products using IEEE The DVD optical disc storage format was invented and developed by Philips and Sony in Ambilightshort for "ambient lighting", is a lighting system for televisions developed by Philips in Dijkstra's algorithmconceived by Dutch computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra in and published inis a graph search algorithm that solves the single-source shortest path problem for a graph with non-negative edge path costs, producing a shortest path tree.

Dijkstra's algorithm is so powerful that it not only finds the shortest path from a chosen source to a given destination, it finds all of the shortest paths from the source to all destinations. This algorithm is often used in routing and as a subroutine in other graph algorithms.

Dijkstra's algorithm is considered as one of the most popular algorithms in computer science. Through his fundamental contributions Edsger Dijkstra helped shape the field of computer science.

His groundbreaking contributions ranged from the engineering side of computer science to the theoretical one and covered several areas including compiler constructionoperating systemsdistributed systemssequential and concurrent programmingsoftware engineeringand graph algorithms.

Many of his papers, often just a few pages long, are the source of whole new research areas. Edsger Dijkstra's foundational work on concurrencysemaphoresmutual exclusiondeadlock, finding shortest paths in graphs, fault-toleranceself-stabilizationamong many other contributions comprises many of the pillars upon which the field of distributed computing is built. The academic study of concurrent programming concurrent algorithms in particular started in the s, with Edsger Dijkstra credited with being the first paper in this field, identifying and solving mutual exclusion.

As Brinch Hansen notes: Computer programming in the s to s was not recognized as an academic discipline and unlike physics there were no theoretical concepts or coding systems. Dijkstra was one of the moving forces behind the acceptance of computer programming as a scientific discipline. Incomputer programming was in a state of crisis. Dijkstra was one of a small group of academics and industrial programmers who advocated a new programming style to improve the quality of programs.

Dijkstra coined the phrase " structured programming " and during the s this became the new programming orthodoxy. Structured programming is the basis for all that has been done since in programming methodologyincluding object-oriented programming. Dijkstra's ideas about structured programming helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the professional discipline of software engineeringenabling programmers to organize and manage increasingly complex software projects.

In computer sciencethe shunting-yard algorithm is a method for parsing mathematical expressions specified in infix notation. It can be used to produce output in Reverse Polish notation RPN or as an abstract syntax tree AST. The algorithm was invented by Edsger Dijkstra and named the "shunting yard" algorithm because its operation resembles that of a railroad shunting yard.

Dijkstra first described the Shunting Yard Algorithm in the Mathematisch Centrum report. In computer sciencemutual exclusion refers to the requirement of ensuring that no two concurrent processes are in their critical section at the same time; it is a basic requirement in concurrency controlto prevent race conditions. The requirement of mutual exclusion was first identified and solved by Edsger W. Dijkstra in his seminal paper titled Solution of a problem in concurrent programming control[] [] and is credited as the first topic in the study of concurrent algorithms.

The semaphore concept was invented by Dijkstra in and the concept has found widespread use in a variety of operating systems. In computer sciencethe sleeping barber problem is a classic inter-process communication and synchronization problem between multiple operating system processes. The problem is analogous to that of keeping a barber working when there are customers, resting when there are none and doing so in an orderly manner.

The Sleeping Barber Problem was introduced by Edsger Dijkstra in The Banker's algorithm is a resource allocation and deadlock avoidance algorithm developed by Edsger Dijkstra that tests for safety by simulating the allocation of predetermined maximum possible amounts of all resourcesand then makes an "s-state" check to test for possible deadlock conditions for all other pending activities, before deciding whether allocation should be allowed to continue. The algorithm was developed in the design process for the THE operating system and originally described in Dutch in EWD In computer sciencethe dining philosophers problem is an example problem often used in concurrent algorithm design to illustrate synchronization issues and techniques for resolving them.

It was originally formulated in by Edsger Dijkstra as a student exam exercise, presented in terms of computers competing for access to tape drive peripherals.

Soon after, Tony Hoare gave the problem its present formulation. Dekker's algorithm is the first known correct solution to the mutual exclusion problem in concurrent programming. Dijkstra attributed the solution to Dutch mathematician Theodorus Dekker in his manuscript on cooperating sequential processes.

It allows two threads to share a single-use resource without conflict, using only shared memory for communication. Dekker's algorithm is the first published software-only, two-process mutual exclusion algorithm. The THE multiprogramming system was a computer operating system designed by a team led by Edsger W. Dijkstradescribed in monographs in —66 [] and published in Van Wijngaarden grammar also vW-grammar or W-grammar is a two-level grammar that provides a technique to define potentially infinite context-free grammars in a finite number of rules.

The formalism was invented by Adriaan van Wijngaarden to rigorously define some syntactic restrictions that previously had to be formulated in natural languagedespite their formal content. Typical applications are the treatment of gender and number in natural language syntax and the well-definedness of identifiers in programming languages. The technique was used and developed in the definition of the programming language ALGOL It is an example of the larger class of affix grammars.

Its principal message is that programming should be considered a scientific discipline based on mathematical rigor. An EPROM or erasable programmable read only memoryis a type of memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. Development of the EPROM memory cell started with investigation of faulty integrated circuits where the gate connections of transistors had broken. Stored charge on these isolated gates changed their properties. The EPROM was invented by the Amsterdam -born Israeli electrical engineer Dov Frohman inwho was awarded US patent [] in Self-stabilization is a concept of fault-tolerance in distributed computing.

A distributed system that is self-stabilizing will end up in a correct state no matter what state it is initialized with. That correct state is reached after a finite number of execution steps. Many years after the seminal paper of Edsger Dijkstra inthis concept remains important as it presents an important foundation for self-managing computer systems and fault-tolerant systems.

Self-stabilization became its own area of study in distributed systems research, and Dijkstra set the stage for the next generation of computer scientists such as Leslie LamportNancy Lynchand Shlomi Dolev.

As a result, Dijkstra's paper received the ACM PODC Influential-Paper Award later renamed as Dijkstra Prize or Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing since Predicate transformer semantics were introduced by Dijkstra in his seminal paper " Guarded commands, nondeterminacy and formal derivation of programs ". The Guarded Command Language GCL is a language defined by Edsger Dijkstra for predicate transformer semantics. A Van Emde Boas tree or Van Emde Boas priority queuealso known as a vEB treeis a tree data structure which implements an associative array with m -bit integer keys.

The vEB tree was invented by a team led by Dutch computer scientist Peter van Emde Boas in ABC is an imperative general-purpose programming language and programming environment developed at CWINetherlands by Leo GeurtsLambert Meertensand Steven Pemberton. It is interactive, structured, high-level, and intended to be used instead of BASICPascalor AWK.

It is not meant to be a systems-programming language but is intended for teaching or prototyping. The language had a major influence on the design of the Python programming language as a counterexample ; Guido van Rossumwho developed Python, previously worked for several years on the ABC system in the early s. The Dijkstra—Scholten algorithm named after Edsger W. Dijkstra and Carel S. Scholten is an algorithm for detecting termination in a distributed system. Smoothsort [] is a comparison-based sorting algorithm.

It is a variation of heapsort developed by Edsger Dijkstra in The Amsterdam Compiler Kit ACK is a fast, lightweight and retargetable compiler suite and toolchain developed by Andrew Tanenbaum and Ceriel Jacobs at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam.

It is MINIX 's native toolchain. The ACK was originally closed-source software that allowed binaries to be distributed for MINIX as a special casebut in April it was released under an open source BSD license. It has frontends for programming languages CPascalModula-2Occamand BASIC.

The ACK's notability stems from the fact that in the early s it was one of the first portable compilation systems designed to support multiple source languages and target platforms. EFM Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation was invented by Dutch electrical engineer Kees A. Schouhamer Immink in EFM is a data encoding technique — formally, a channel code — used by CDs, laserdiscs and pre- Hi-MD MiniDiscs.

MINIX from "mini- Unix " is a Unix-like computer operating system based on a microkernel architecture. Early versions of MINIX were created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum for educational purposes. Starting with MINIX 3the primary aim of development shifted from education to the creation of a highly reliable and self-healing microkernel OS.

MINIX is now developed as open-source software. MINIX was first released inwith its complete source code made available to universities for study in courses and research.

It has been free and open source software since it was re-licensed under the BSD license in April Tanenbaum created MINIX at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam to exemplify the principles conveyed in his textbookOperating Systems: Design and Implementationthat Linus Torvalds described as "the book that launched me to new heights".

Amoeba is a distributed operating system developed by Andrew S. Tanenbaum and others at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam. The aim of the Amoeba project was to build a timesharing system that makes an entire network of computers appear to the user as a single machine.

The Python programming language was originally developed for this platform. Python is a widely used general-purposehigh-level programming language. Python supports multiple programming paradigmsincluding object-orientedimperative and functional programming or procedural styles.

It features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management and has a large and comprehensive standard library. Python was conceived in the late s and its implementation was started in December by Guido van Rossum at CWI in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC language itself inspired by SETL capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system.

Van Rossum is Python's principal author, and his continuing central role in deciding the direction of Python is reflected in the title given to him by the Python community, benevolent dictator for life BDFL. Vim is a text editor written by the Dutch free software programmer Bram Moolenaar and first released publicly in Based on the Vi editor common to Unix-like systems, Vim carefully separated the user interface from editing functions. Blender is a professional free and open-source 3D computer graphics software product used for creating animated filmsvisual effectsart, 3D printed models, interactive 3D applications and video games.

Blender's features include 3D modelingUV unwrappingtexturingraster graphics editingrigging and skinningfluid and smoke simulationparticle simulation, soft body simulation, sculptinganimatingmatch movingcamera trackingrenderingvideo editing and compositing.

Alongside the modelling features it also has an integrated game engine. Blender has been successfully used in the media industry in several parts of the world including Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Russia, Sweden, and the United States. The Dutch animation studio Neo Geo and Not a Number Technologies NaN developed Blender as an in-house application, with the primary author being Ton Roosendaal.

The name Blender was inspired by a song by Yellofrom the album Baby. EFMPlus is the channel code used in DVDs and SACDsa more efficient successor to EFM used in CDs.

It was created by Dutch electrical engineer Kees A. Schouhamer Imminkwho also designed EFM. The advantage of EFMPlus is its superior resilience against disc damage such as scratches and fingerprints. The VOC was also the first company to actually issue stocks and bonds through a stock exchange.

This invention enhanced the ability of joint-stock companies to attract capital from investors as they could now easily dispose their shares. The company was known throughout the world as the VOC thanks to its logo featuring those initials, which became the first global corporate brand.

The company's monogram also became the first global logo. The Dutch East India Company was arguably the first megacorporationpossessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money and establish colonies. Many economic and political historians consider the Dutch East India Company as the most valuable, powerful and influential corporation in the world history.

The VOC existed for almost years from its founding inwhen the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a year monopoly over Dutch operations in Asia until its demise in During those two centuries between andthe VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4, ships, and netted for their efforts more than 2.

By contrast, the rest of Europe combined sent onlypeople from toand the fleet of the English later British East India Companythe VOC's nearest competitor, was a distant second to its total traffic with 2, ships and a mere one-fifth the tonnage of goods carried by the VOC.

The VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. A Dutch auction is also known as an open descending price auction. Named after the famous auctions of Dutch tulip bulbs in the 17th century, it is based on a pricing system devised by Nobel Prize—winning economist William Vickrey.

In the traditional Dutch auctionthe auctioneer begins with a high asking price which is lowered until some participant is willing to accept the auctioneer's price. The winning participant pays the last announced price.

Dutch auction is also sometimes used to describe online auctions where several identical goods are sold simultaneously to an equal number of high bidders. In addition to cut flower sales in the Netherlands, Dutch auctions have also been used for perishable commodities such as fish and tobacco.

The Dutch Republic was the birthplace of the first modern art market open art market or free art market. The seventeenth-century Dutch were the pioneering arts marketerssuccessfully combining art and commerce together as we would recognise it today.

The emergence of a powerful and wealthy middle class in Hollandthough, produced a radical change in patronage as the new Dutch bourgeoisie bought art. For the first time, the direction of art was shaped by relatively broadly-based demand rather than religious dogma or royal whim, and the result was a market which today's dealers and collectors would find familiar.

With the creation of the first large-scale open art market, prosperous Dutch merchants, artisans, and civil servants bought paintings and prints in unprecedented numbers. Foreign visitors were astonished that even modest members of Dutch society such as farmers and bakers owned multiple works of art. The seventeenth-century Dutch businessmen were the pioneers in laying the basis for modern corporate governance. Isaac Le Mairean Amsterdam businessman and a sizeable shareholder of the VOCbecame the first recorded investor to actually consider the corporate governance 's problems.

Inhe complained of the VOC's shoddy corporate governance. On January 24,Le Maire filed a petition against the VOC, marking the first recorded expression of shareholder activism. The construction in of a train-oil factory on Smeerenburg in the Spitsbergen islands by the Noordsche Compagnieand the acquisition in of Manhattan Island by the Dutch West India Company are referred to as the earliest cases of outward foreign direct investment FDI in Dutch and world history.

Their trading activities generated enormous wealth, making the Dutch Republic one of the most prosperous countries of that time. The Dutch Republic's extensive arms trade occasioned an episode in the industrial development of early-modern Sweden, where arms merchants like Louis de Geer and the Trip brothers, invested in iron mines and iron works, another early example of outward foreign direct investment.

It was in the Dutch Republic that some important industries economic sectors such as shipbuildingshippingprinting and publishing were developed on a large-scale export-driven model for the first time in history. The ship building district of Zaannear Amsterdambecame the first industrialized area in the world, [] with around industrial windmills at the end of the 17th century, but there were industrialized towns and cities on a smaller scale also.

Other industries that saw significant growth were papermakingsugar refiningprinting, the linen industry with spin-offs in vegetable oils, like flax and rape oiland industries that used the cheap peat fuel, like brewing and ceramics brickworkspottery and clay-pipe making. The Dutch shipbuilding industry was of modern dimensions, inclining strongly toward standardised, repetitive methods.

It was highly mechanized and used many labor-saving devices-wind-powered sawmillspowered feeders for saw, block and tackles, great cranes to move heavy timbers-all of which increased productivity. Economic historians consider the Netherlands as the first predominantly capitalist nation.

It spread to the European interstate system, eventually resulting in the world's first capitalist nation-statethe Dutch Republic of the seventeenth century.

They also played a pioneering role in the emergence of the capitalist world-system. World-systems theorists including Immanuel Wallerstein and Giovanni Arrighi often consider the economic primacy kisah sukses pemain forex the Dutch Republic in the 17th century forex capital markets ceo the first capitalist hegemony [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] in world history followed by hegemonies of the United Kingdom in the 19th century and the United States in the 20th century.

Its manufacturing towns grew so quickly that by the middle of the century the Netherlands had supplanted France as the leading industrial nation of the world. Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first national comprehensive macroeconomic modelwhich he first built for the Netherlands and after World War II later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom.

The concept of fair trade has been around for over 40 years, but a formal labelling scheme emerged only in the s. At the initiative of Mexican coffee farmers, the world's first Fairtrade labeling organisation, Stichting Max Havelaarwas launched in the Netherlands on 15 November by Nico RoozenFrans van der Hoff and Dutch ecumenical development agency Solidaridad.

It was branded " Max Havelaar " after a fictional Dutch character who opposed the exploitation of coffee pickers in Dutch colonies. An exchangeor bourseis a highly organized market where especially tradable securitiescommoditiesforeign exchangefuturesand options contracts are sold and bought. The term bourse is derived from the 13th-century inn named Huis ter Beurze in BrugesLow Countrieswhere traders and foreign merchants from across Europe conducted business in the late medieval period.

Its managers became famous for offering judicious financial advice to the tri state livestock market abingdon va and merchants who frequented the building. This service became known as the "Beurze Purse" which is the basis of boursemeaning an organised place of exchange.

The seventeenth-century Dutch merchants laid the foundations for modern stock market that now influences greatly the global economy.

It was in the Dutch Republic that a fully-fledged stock market was established bill meridians planetary stock trading developed for the first time forex trade signal copier history. Although bond sales by municipalities and states can be traced to the thirteenth century, the origin of modern stock exchanges that specialize in creating and sustaining secondary markets in corporate securities goes back to the formation of the Dutch East India Company in the year It was established in by the Dutch East India Company for dealings in its printed stocks and bonds.

Here, the Dutch also pioneered stock futuresstock optionsshort sellingdebt-equity swaps, merchant bankingbondsunit trusts and other speculative instruments. Unlike the competing companies, the VOC allowed anyone including housemaids to purchase stock in the trading at the fully operational Amsterdam Bourse. The practice of naked short selling was also invented in the Dutch Republic. InIsaac Le Mairean Amsterdam merchant and a sizeable shareholder of the Dutch East India Company VOCbecame the first recorded short seller in history.

The forex renko chart indicator amibroker recorded ban on short selling also took place in the Dutch Republic in the same year. In the early 17th century, Dutch merchants invented the common stock — that of the VOC. Also, the Dutch experienced the first recorded stock supermarket stock control software crash in history, the Tulip Mania of — Sincestock market trading has come a long way.

But basically, the concept and principle of stock market trading is still upheld and is still being implemented up to now. The Dutch Republic Amsterdam in particular was the birthplace of the world's first fully functioning financial marketcty cp forex toan cau the birth of a fully fledged capital market.

Capital markets for debt and equity shares are used to raise long-term funds. New stocks and bonds are sold in primary markets including initial public offerings and arcadia share & stock brokers back office markets including stock exchanges.

While the Italian city-states produced the first transferable municipal bondsthey didn't develop the other ingredient necessary to produce a fully fledged capital market: The Dutch East India Company VOC became the first company to offer shares of stock to the general public.

Dutch investors were the first to trade their shares at a regular stock exchange. In swing and day trading market profile education Dutch East India Company VOC established an exchange in Amsterdam where the VOC stocks and bonds could be traded in a secondary market.

The Dutch were also the first to use a fully-fledged capital market including bond market and stock market to finance companies such as the VOC and the Tri state livestock market abingdon va. It was in seventeenth-century Amsterdam that the global securities market began to take on its modern form.

What is now known as corporate finance has its modern roots in financial management policies of the Dutch East India Company VOC in the 17th century and some basic aspects of modern corporate finance began to appear in financial activities of Dutch businessmen in the early 17th century. The earliest form of a company which issued public shares was the forexpros commodities crude oil advanced chart during the Roman Republic.

Inthe Dutch East India Company Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC became the first modern company to issue shares to the public, thus launching the first modern initial public offering IPO. The VOC held the first public offering of shares in history shortly after its founding. The Dutch were the pioneers in laying the basis for investment bankingallowing the risk of how to make money on the stock exchange gta to be distributed among thousands of investors in the early seventeenth century.

Prior to the 17th century most money was commodity moneytypically gold or silver. Fxcm trading station system requirements, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia.

The Song Dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, while the Yuan Dynasty was the first to use notes as the predominant circulating medium. Inin an effort to control inflationthe succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The medieval European Knights Templar ran an early prototype of a central banking system, as their promises to pay were widely respected, and many regard their activities as buying and selling shares in an isa laid the basis for the modern banking system.

As the first public bank to "offer accounts not directly convertible to coin", the Bank of Amsterdam Amsterdamsche Wisselbank or literally Amsterdam Exchange Bank established in is considered to be the precursor to modern central banksif not the first true central bank. Along with a number of subsidiary local banks, it performed many of modern-day central banking functions. The establishment of the Wisselbank led to the introduction of the concept of bank money — the bank guilder.

Considered by many experts to be the first internationally dominant reserve currency of modern times, the Dutch guilder was the dominant currency during the 17th and 18th centuries.

It was just replaced by British pound sterling in the 19th century and the US dollar took the lead just after World War Two and has held it until this day. Financial innovation in Amsterdam took many forms.

Ininvestors led by Isaac Le Maire formed history's first bear syndicate to engage in short sellingbut their coordinated trading had only a modest impact in driving down share prices, which tended to be robust throughout the 17th century. In the first decades of the 17th century, the VOC was the first recorded company ever to pay regular dividends. To encourage investors to buy shares, a promise of an annual payment called a dividend was made.

An investor would receive dividends instead interest and the investment was permanent in the form of shares in the company. Between and the Dutch East India Company VOC paid annual dividends worth around 18 percent of the value of the shares. InKing Charles X Gustav of Sweden signed two charters creating two private banks under the directorship of Mutual fund market share canada Palmstruch though before having been ennobled he was called Johan Wittmacher stock trend trading software review Hans Wittmachera Riga -born merchant of Dutch origin.

Palmstruch modeled the banks on those of How much money did canelo make in tonight fight where he had become a burgher.

The first real European banknote was issued in by the Stockholms Banco of Johan Palmstrucha private bank under state charter precursor to the Sveriges Riksbankthe central bank of Sweden. Joseph de la Vegaalso known as Joseph Penso de la Vega, was an Forex ma breakout trader from a Spanish Jewish family and a prolific writer as well as a successful businessman.

His book Confusion de Confusiones Confusion of Confusions explained the workings of the city's stock market. It was the earliest book about stock tradingtaking the form of a dialogue between a merchant, a shareholder and a philosopher.

The book described a market that was sophisticated but also prone to excesses, and de la Vega offered advice to his readers on such topics as the unpredictability of market shifts and the importance of patience in investment.

The book has been described as the first precursor of modern behavioural finance, with its descriptions of investor decision-making still reflected in the way some investors operate today, and in was still rated by the Financial Times as one of the ten best investment book ever written. The principles of technical analysis are derived from hundreds of years of financial market data.

These principles in a raw form have been studied since the seventeenth century. In Asia, technical analysis is said to be a method developed by Homma Munehisa during the early 18th century which evolved into the use of candlestick techniquesand is today a technical analysis charting tool. Josseph de la Vega was in the first person to give an account of irrational behaviour in financial markets.

His book Confusion of Confusionshas been described as the first precursor of modern behavioural financewith its descriptions of investor decision-making still reflected in the way some investors operate today. Amsterdam was the first modern model of an international global financial centre that now operated in several countries around the world.

In the early 17th century, the Dutch revolutionized domestic and international finance by inventing common stock — that of the Dutch East India Company and founding a proto- central bankthe Wisselbank or Bank of Amsterdam.

Inthe Dutch had already had a government bond market for some decades. Shortly thereafter, the Dutch Republic had in place, in one form or another, all of the key components of a modern financial system: The Dutch Republic went on to become that century's leading economy. The first investment fund has its roots back in A Dutch merchant named Adriaan van Ketwich formed a trust named Eendragt Maakt Magt. The name of Ketwich's fund translates to "unity creates strength".

This investment scheme can be seen as the first near-mutual fund. In the years following, near-mutual funds evolved and become more diverse and complex. The first mutual funds were established in in the Netherlands. Amsterdam-based businessman Abraham van Ketwich a. Adriaan van Ketwich is often credited as the originator of the world's first mutual fund. Gibbing is the process of preparing salt herring or soused herringin which the gills and part of the gullet are removed from the fish, eliminating any bitter taste.

The liver and pancreas are left in the fish during the salt-curing process because they release enzymes essential for flavor.

The fish is then cured in a barrel with one part salt to 20 herring. Today many variations and local preferences exist on this process.

The process of gibbing was invented by Willem Beuckelszoon [] aka Willem Beuckelsz, William Buckels [] or William Buckelssona 14th-century Zealand Fisherman. The invention of this fish preservation technique led to the Dutch becoming a seafaring power. Many people believe it was the Dutch who invented doughnuts. A Dutch snack made jquery mobile refresh select options potatoes had a round shape like a ball, but, like Gregory's dough ballsneeded a little longer time when fried to cook the inside thoroughly.

These potato-balls developed into doughnuts when the Dutch finally made them into ring-shapes reduce frying time.

Gin is a spirit which derives its predominant flavour from juniper berries Juniperus communis. How to buy oil futures scottrade its earliest origins in the Middle Agesgin has evolved over the course of a millennium from a herbal medicine to an object of commerce in the spirits industry.

Gin was developed on the basis of the older Jeneverand become widely popular in Great Britain when William III of Orangeleader of the Dutch Republicoccupied the British throne with his wife Mary. Today, the gin category is one of the most popular and widely distributed range of spirits, and is represented by products of various origins, styles, and flavour profiles that all revolve around juniper as a common ingredient.

The Dutch physician Franciscus Sylvius is often credited with the invention of gin in the mid 17th century, [] [] although the existence of genever is confirmed in Massinger's play The Duke of Milanwhen Dr.

Sylvius would have been but nine years of age. It is further claimed that British soldiers who provided support in Antwerp against the Spanish induring the Eighty Years' Warwere already drinking genever jenever for its calming effects before battle, from which the term Dutch Courage is believed to have originated.

A stroopwafel also known as syrup waffletreacle waffle or caramel waffle is a waffle made from two thin layers of baked batter with a caramel-like syrup filling the middle.

They were first made in Gouda in the s. The traditional way to eat the stroopwafel is to place it atop of a drinking vessel with a hot beverage coffee, should i open a stocks and shares isa or chocolate inside that fits the diameter of the waffle.

The heat from the rising steam warms the waffle and slightly softens the inside and makes the waffle soft on one side while still crispy on the other. InDutch chemist Coenraad Van Houten introduced alkaline salts to chocolatewhich reduced its bitterness. In the s, Casparus van Houten, Sr. This innovation introduced the modern era of chocolate. Van Houten developed the first cocoa powder producing machine in the Netherlands. This created a "cake" that could be pulverized into cocoa powderwhich was to become the basis of all chocolate products.

This powder, much like the instant cocoa powder used today, was easier to stir into milk and water. As a result, another very important automatic forex trading wiki was made: By using cocoa powder and low amounts of cocoa butterit was then possible to manufacture chocolate bar.

The term " chocolate " then came to mean solid chocolaterather than hot chocolate. Dutch-processed chocolate or Dutched chocolate is chocolate that has been treated with an alkalizing agent to modify its color and give it a milder taste compared to "natural cocoa" extracted with the Broma process.

It forms the basis for much of modern chocolate, and is used in ice creamhot cocoaand baking. The Dutch process was developed in the early 19th century by Dutch chocolate maker Coenraad Johannes van Houtenwhose father Casparus is responsible for the development of the method of removing fat from cacao beans by hydraulic press aroundforming the basis for cocoa powder.

InHugo Grotiusthe Dutch jurist who is generally known as the father of modern international lawpublished his book Mare Liberum The Free Seawhich first formulated the notion of freedom of the seas. He developed this idea into a legal principle. His work sparked a debate in the seventeenth century over whether states could exclude the vessels of other states from certain waters.

Grotius won this debate, as freedom of the seas became a universally recognized legal principle, associated with concepts such as communication, trade and peace. Grotius's notion of the freedom of the seas would persist until the mid-twentieth century, and it continues to be applied even to this day for much of the high seasthough the application of the concept and the scope of its reach is changing.

The publication of De jure belli ac pacis On the Laws of War and Peace by Hugo Grotius in had marked the emergence of international law as an 'autonomous legal science'. Grotius developed pivotal treatises on best broker for penny stocks uk of the seas, the law of spoils, the laws of war and peace and he created an autonomous moneymakeredge avis for international law as its own discipline.

Grotius seems to have basics of future and option trading the first who attempted to give the world anything like a make money on auctions system of natural jurisprudence, and his treatise, 'On the Laws of War and Peace, ' with all its imperfections, is perhaps at this day the most complete work on this subject.

The Grotian conception of international society became the most distinctive characteristic of the internationalist or rationalist tradition in international relations. This is why it is also called the Grotian tradition. According to it international politics takes place within international society in which states are bound not only by rules of prudence or expediency but also of morality and law.

Grotius was arguably not the first to formulate such a doctrine. However, he was first to clearly define the idea of one society of states, governed not by force or warfare but by laws and mutual agreement to enforce those laws. As many international law scholars noted, the spirit of the Peace of Westphalia was preceded with the thoughts and ideas of Grotius. By the end of the seventeenth century, support was growing for some limitation to the seaward extent of territorial waters.

What emerged was the so-called "cannon shot rule", which acknowledged the idea that property rights could be acquired by physical occupation and in ftse 100 stocks to buy to the effective range of shore-based cannon: The rule was long associated with Cornelis van Bijnkershoeka Dutch jurist who, especially in his De Dominio Maris Dissertatioadvocated a middle ground between the extremes of Mare Liberum and John Selden 's Mare Clausumaccepting both the freedom of states to navigate and exploit the resources of the high seas and a right of coastal states to assert wide-ranging rights in a limited marine territory.

The Permanent Court of Arbitration PCA is an international organization based in The Hague in the Netherlands. The court was established in as one of the acts of the first Hague Peace Conferencewhich makes it the oldest global institution for international dispute resolution. The trade stocks on iphone concrete achievement of the Conference was the establishment of the PCA as the first institutionalized global mechanism for the settlement of disputes between states.

The PCA encourages the resolution of disputes that involve states, state entities, intergovernmental organizationsand private parties by assisting in the establishment of arbitration tribunals and facilitating their work.

The court offers a wide range of services for the resolution of international disputes which the parties concerned have expressly agreed to submit for resolution under its auspices. Dutch-Jew legal scholar Tobias Asser 's role in the creation of the PCA at the first Hague Peace Conference earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in The International Opium Conventionforextrader to excel referred to as the Hague Convention ofsigned on 23 January at The Haguewas the first international drug control treaty and is the core of the international drug control system.

The adoption of the Convention was a turning point in multilateralismbased on the recognition of the transnational nature of the drug problem and the principle of shared responsibility. Denmark was the first state to recognize a legal relationship for same-sex couples, establishing "registered partnerships" very much like marriage in Inthe Netherlands became the first nation in the world to grant same-sex marriages.

The first laws enabling same-sex marriage in modern times were enacted during the first decade of the 21st century. As of 29 March [update]sixteen countries ArgentinaBelgiumBrazilCanadaDenmark[nb 1] FranceIcelandNetherlands[nb 2] New Zealand[nb 3] NorwayPortugalSpainSouth AfricaSwedenUnited Kingdom[nb 4] Uruguay and several sub-national jurisdictions parts of Mexico and the United States allow same-sex couples to marry.

Polls in various countries show that there is rising support for legally recognizing same-sex marriage across race, ethnicity, age, religion, political affiliation, and socioeconomic status. The first mechanical clocksemploying the verge escapement mechanism with a foliot or balance wheel timekeeper, were invented in Europe at around the start of the 14th century, and became the standard timekeeping device until the pendulum clock was invented in The pendulum clock remained the most accurate timekeeper until the s, when quartz oscillators were invented, followed by atomic clocks after World War 2.

A pendulum clock uses a pendulum's arc to mark intervals of time. From their invention until aboutthe most accurate clocks were pendulum clocks. Pendulum clocks cannot operate on vehicles or ships at seabecause the accelerations disrupt the pendulum's motion, causing inaccuracies. The pendulum clock was invented by Christian Huygensbased on the pendulum introduced by Galileo Galilei. Although Galileo studied the pendulum as early ashe never actually constructed a clock based on that design.

Christiaan Huygens invented pendulum clock in and patented the following year. He contracted the construction of his clock designs to clockmaker Salomon Costerwho actually built the clock.

Various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Cornelis DrebbelRobert FluddGalileo Galilei or Santorio Santorio. The thermometer was not a single invention, however, but a development. However, each inventor and each thermometer was unique — there was no standard scale.

In Christiaan Huygens suggested using the melting and boiling points of water as standards. InSwedish astronomer Anders Celsius created a temperature scale which was the reverse of the scale now known by the name " Celsius ": The invention of the mainspring in the early 15th century allowed portable clocks to be built, evolving into the first pocketwatches by the 17th century, but these were not very accurate until the balance spring was added to the balance wheel in the mid 17th century.

Some dispute remains as to whether British bloomberg fx rate eur gbp Robert Hooke his was a straight spring or Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens was the actual inventor of the balance spring.

Huygens was clearly the first to successfully implement a spiral balance spring in a portable timekeeper. This is significant because up to that point the pendulum was the most reliable. Like the invention of pendulum clockHuygens' spiral hairspring balance spring system of portable timekeepers, helped lay the foundations for the modern watchmaking industry. The application of the spiral balance spring for watches ushered in a new era of accuracy for portable timekeepers, similar to that which the pendulum had introduced for clocks.

From its invention in by Christiaan Huygensthe spiral hairspring balance spring system for portable timekeepers, still used in mechanical watchmaking industry today. Though Galileo is often said to be the inventor of the thermometerwhat he produced were thermoscopes. The difference between a thermoscope and a thermometer is that the latter has a scale.

Before there was the thermometerthere was the earlier and closely related thermoscopebest described as a thermometer without a temperature scale. A thermoscope only showed the differences in temperaturesfor example, it could show something was getting hotter. However, the thermoscope did not measure all the data that a thermometer could, for example an exact temperature in degrees.

What can be considered the first modern thermometer, the mercury thermometer with a standardized scale, was invented by German-Dutch scientist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit who had settled in Amsterdam in in He began constructing his own thermometers inand it was in these that he used mercury for the first time. In Christiaan Huygens suggested using the melting and boiling points of water as standards, and in Carlo Renaldini proposed using them as fixed points on a universal scale.

In Isaac Newton proposed a scale of 12 degrees between the melting point of ice and body temperature. Finally in Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit produced a temperature scale which now slightly adjusted bears his name. He could do this hdfc option trading charges he manufactured thermometersusing mercury which has a high coefficient of expansion for the first time and the quality of his production could provide a finer scale and greater reproducibility, leading to its general adoption.

The Fahrenheit scale was the first widely used temperature scale. By the end of the 20th century, most countries used the Celsius scale rather than the Fahrenheit scale, though Canada retained it as a supplementary scale used alongside Celsius. Fahrenheit remains the official scale for Jamaicathe Cayman IslandsBelizethe BahamasPalau and the United States and associated territories.

The Snellen chart is an eye chart used by eye care professionals and others to measure visual acuity. Snellen charts are named after Dutch ophthalmologist Hermann Snellen who developed the chart in Vision scientists now use a variation of this chart, designed by Ian Bailey and Jan Lovie.

Previous to the string galvanometerscientists used a machine called the capillary electrometer to measure the heart's electrical activity, but this device was 24 hour binary options trading 30 seconds to produce results at a diagnostic make money selling coachella tickets. Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven developed the string galvanometer in the early 20th century, publishing best printer for making counterfeit money first registration of its use to record an electrocardiogram in a Festschrift book in The first human electrocardiogram was recorded inhowever only in was a quantifiable result obtained from the string galvanometer.

InDutch astronomer Jan Schilt invented the Schilt photometera device that measures the light output of stars and, indirectly, their distances. In the 19th century it became clear that the heart generated electric currents. The first to systematically approach the heart from an electrical point-of-view was Augustus Wallerworking in St Mary's Hospital in PaddingtonLondon.

In he saw little clinical application for his work. The breakthrough came when Einthoven, working in Leidenused his more sensitive string galvanometer, than the capillary electrometer that Waller used. Einthoven assigned the letters P, Q, R, S and T to the various deflections that it measured and described the electrocardiographic features of a number of cardiovascular disorders. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. Einthoven's triangle is an imaginary formation of three limb leads in a triangle used in electrocardiographyformed by descargar curso dominando forex two shoulders and the pubis.

It is named after Willem Einthovenwho theorized its existence. When German bombers attacked The Hague in while Willem Johan Kolff was there, he organised the first blood bank in continental Europe.

It was located in the Zuidwal hospital in The Hague.

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Donated blood was also used for victims of the bombardment of Rotterdamwhither it was transported by civilian car. An artificial kidney is a machine and its related devices which clean blood for patients who have an acute or chronic failure of their kidneys. The first artificial kidney was developed australia post anzac day opening hours Dutchman Willem Johan Kolff.

The procedure of how did larry birkhead make his money the blood by this means is called dialysisa type of renal replacement therapy that is used to provide an artificial replacement for lost kidney function due to renal failure. It is a life support treatment and does not treat disease.

On 12 DecemberKolff implanted an artificial heart into a dog at Cleveland Clinic. The dog lived for 90 minutes. Kolff left Cleveland Clinic to start the Division of Artificial Organs at the University of Utah and pursue his work on the artificial heart.

Under his supervision, a team of surgeons, chemists, physicists and bioengineers developed an artificial heart and made it ready for industrial production. To help msn money earnings per share his many endeavors, Dr. Kolff assigned project managers. Each project was named after its manager. Graduate student Robert Jarvik was the project manager for the artificial heart, which was subsequently renamed the Jarvik Based on lengthy animal trials, this first artificial heart was successfully implanted into the thorax of patient Barney Clark in December Clark survived days with the device.

The Dutch Republic has been considered by many political and military historians as the first modern global sea power. In the middle of the 17th century the Dutch navy was the most powerful navy in the world. The system of global trade, investment, and military power the Dutch built in the seventeenth century was the envy and the wonder of the world at the time, and many of its basic features were adopted by the British and the Americans in subsequent years.

They had to help him with his modernization of Russia. The best-known sailor who made the journey from the Dutch Republic to Russia was Norwegian-Dutch Cornelius Cruys.

Cruys performed well in Russia and came be regarded procedure for buyback of equity shares the architect of the Russian Navy. He became the first commander of the Russian Baltic Fleet and the vice admiral of the Imperial Russian Navy.

Peter the Great designed his new capital on the model of Amsterdam and gave it a Dutch name, Sankt Pieter Burkh later Germanized into Saint Peterburg. The triangular man-made island took its name after a number of canals and shipbuilding facilities that rendered its appearance similar to Amsterdam.

The early modern Military Revolution began with reforms inaugurated by Prince Maurice of Nassau with his cousins Count Willem Lodewijk of Nassau-Dillenburg and Count John VII of Nassau during the s. He also developed a step drill for firing the musket that was included in an illustrated weapons manual by Jacob de Gheyn II in Wapenhandelinghe or Exerise of Arms.

This became known as the Dutch drill. It was widely read and emulated in the rest of Europe. Adopting and perfecting the techniques pioneered by Maurice of Nassau several decades earlier, Gustavus Adolphus repeatedly proved his techniques by defeating the armies of Spain —an empire with resources fantastically larger than Sweden's during the Thirty Years' War.

Maurice' s military innovations had considerable influences on Descartes' system of philosophy. The Norden bombsight was designed by Carl Buy netflix stock onlinea Dutch engineer educated in Switzerland who emigrated to the U. Inhe started work on the Norden bombsight for the United States Navy. The first bombsight was produced in It was essentially an analog computer, and bombardiers were trained in great secrecy on how to use it.

The device was used to drop bombs accurately from an aircraft, supposedly accurate enough to hit a foot circle from an altitude of 21, feet — but under actual combat situations, such an accuracy was never achieved.

A submarine snorkel is a device that allows a submarine to operate submerged while still taking in air from above the surface. It was invented by the Dutchman J. Wichers shortly before World War II and copied by the Germans during the war for use by U-Boats. Its common military name is snort. Goalkeeper is a close-in weapon system CIWS still in use as of It is autonomous and completely automatic short-range defense of ships against highly maneuverable missiles, aircraft and fast maneuvering surface vessels.

Once activated the system automatically performs the entire process from surveillance and detection to destruction, including selection of priority targets. The first mechanical metronome was invented by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel in Amsterdam inbut named patented after Johann Maelzelwho took the idea and popularized it. Dutch musician-physicist Adriaan Fokker designed and had built keyboard instruments capable of playing microtonal scales via a generalized keyboard.

The best-known of these is his tone equal-tempered organwhich was installed in Teylers Museum in Haarlem in It is commonly called the Fokker organ. The Kraakdoos or Cracklebox is a custom-made battery-powered noise-making electronic device. It is a small box with six metal how to invest on indian stock market on top, which when pressed by fingers generates unusual sounds and tones.

The human body becomes a part of the circuit and determines the range of sounds possible — different players generate different results. The concept was first conceived by Michel Waisvisz and Geert Hamelberg in the s, and developed further in the s when Waisvisz joined the STEIM foundation in Amsterdam. The Moodswinger is a twelve-string electric zither with an additional third bridge designed by Dutch luthier Yuri Landman.

The joptionpane.showinputdialog for char functions as iraqi dinar on foreign exchange third bridge and divides the strings into two sections to add overtonescreating a multiphonic sound.

The Springtime is an experimental electric guitar with seven strings and three outputs. Landman created the forex xtrade in Neostoicism was a syncretic philosophical movementjoining Stoicism difference between stock broker and stock dealer Christianity.

Neostoicism was founded by Dutch-Flemish humanist Justus Lipsiuswho in presented its rules, expounded in his book De Constantia On Constancyas a dialogue between Lipsius and his friend Charles de Langhe. The eleven years — that Lipsius spent in Leiden Leiden University were the period of his emini futures trading education productivity. It was during this time that he wrote a series of works designed to revive ancient Stoicism in a form that would be compatible with Christianity.

The most famous of these is De Constantia Neostoicism had a direct influence on many seventeenth and eighteenth-century writers including Montesquieu, Bossuet, Francis Bacon, Joseph Hall, Francisco de Quevedo and Juan de Vera y Figueroa. The rise of modern strategia forex price action in the Dutch Republic, had a profound influence on the 17th-century philosophy.

Descartes is often considered to be the first of the modern rationalists. Descartes himself had lived in the Dutch Republic for some twenty years — and served for a while in the army of the Dutch military leader Prince Maurice of Orange-Nassau. The Dutch Republic was the first country in which Descartes' rationalistic philosophy Cartesianism succeeded in replacing Aristotelianism as the academic orthodoxy. Fritz Berolzheimer considers Hugo Grotius the Descartes of legal philosophy and notes Grotian rationalism 's influence on the 17th-century jurisprudence: Sometime between and it appears that Spinoza did some formal study of philosophy at the University of Leiden.

Philosophy of Spinoza Spinozism was an systematic answer to Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate. Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century Dutch Jew philosopher Baruch Spinozawhose Ethics was an answer to Descartes ' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate. Spinoza is regarded as the chief source of filetype pdf the ineciency of the stock market equilibrium pantheism.

Spinoza held that the two forex diamonds review the same, and this monism is a fundamental quality of his philosophy. He was described as a "God-intoxicated man," and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance. Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate.

As Bertrand Russell noted in his A History of Western Philosophy It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of Holland in the seventeenth century, as the one country where there was freedom of speculation. Hobbes had to have his books printed there; Locke took refuge there during the five worst forex elliott wave of reaction in England before ; Bayle of the Dictionary found it necessary to live there; and Spinoza would hardly have been allowed to do his work in any other country.

It stood for religious toleration; it was Protestant, but of a latitudinarian rather than of a fanatical kind; it regarded the wars of religion as silly As Russell Shorto states: History has long taught that our modern sensibility comes from the eighteenth century Enlightenment. In recent decades, historians have seen the Dutch Enlightenment of the seventeenth century as the root of the wider Enlightenment.

If Descartes is still considered the father of modern philosophyDutch Republic can be called its cradle. Descartes is often regarded as the how to earn black money in delhi thinker to emphasize the use of reason to develop the natural sciences. Cartesianism had been controversial for several years before Descartes himself had lived in the Dutch Republic for some twenty years — Descartes served for a while in the army of the Dutch military leader Prince Maurice of Orange-Nassauand developed a fascination for practical technology.

In the s, while staying in the Dutch city DeventerDescartes worked on a text which became published as Traite' de l'Homme Throughout his writing, he used words such as clockautomatonand self — moving machine as interchangeable constructs. He postulated an account of the physical world that was thoroughly materialistic.

His mechanical view of nature replaced the organism model which had been popular since the Renaissance. In the s and s, Descartes's ideas gained a foothold at the Dutch universities. Spinozism is the monist philosophical system of the Dutch-Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza which defines "God" as a singular self-subsistent substance, with both matter and thought as its attributes.

The term "affect" is central to what became known as the "affective turn" in the humanities and social sciences. Mandeville's paradox is named after Bernard Mandevillewho shows that actions which may be qualified as vicious with regard to individuals have benefits for society as a whole.

This is already clear from the subtitle of his most famous work, The Fable of The Bees: He states that "Fraud, Luxury, and Pride must live; Whilst we the Benefits receive. Mathematical intuitionism was founded by the Dutch mathematician and philosopher Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer. In the philosophy of mathematicsintuitionism, or neointuitionism opposed to preintuitionismis an approach where mathematics is considered to be purely the result of the constructive mental activity of humans rather than the discovery of fundamental principles claimed to exist in an objective reality.

That is, logic and mathematics are not considered analytic activities wherein deep properties of objective reality are revealed and applied, but are instead considered the application of internally consistent methods used to realize more complex mental constructs, regardless of their possible independent existence in an objective reality.

Devotio Modernaor Modern Devotionwas a movement for religious reform, calling for apostolic renewal through the rediscovery of genuine pious practices such as humility, obedience and simplicity of life.

It began in the late fourteenth-century, largely through the work of Gerard Grooteand flourished in the Low Countries and Germany in truro cattle market poultry sale fifteenth century, but came to an end with the Protestant Reformation. Gerard Grootefather of the movement, founded the Brethren of the Common Life ; after his death, disciples established a house of Augustinian Canons at Windesheim near ZwolleOverijssel.

These two communities became the principal exponents of Devotio Moderna. Martin Luther studied under the Brethren of easy way to get money in swtor Common Life at Magdeburg before going on to the University of Erfurt. Another famous member of the Brethren of the Common Life was Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam. The Mennonites are a Christian group based around the church communities of Anabaptist denominations named after Menno Simons — of Friesland.

Through his writings, Simons articulated and formalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders. The teachings of the Mennonites were founded on their belief in both the mission and ministry of Jesus Christwhich they held to with great conviction despite persecution by various Roman Catholic and Protestant states. The Dutch Reformed Church in Dutch: Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk or NHK was a Reformed Christian denomination. It developed during the Protestant Reformationwith its base in what became known as the Roman Catholic Church.

It was founded in the s and lasted untilthe year it merged with the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands to form the Protestant Church in the Netherlands. Arminianism is based on the theological ideas of Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius — and his historic supporters known as the Remonstrants.

His teachings held to the five solae of the Reformation, but they were distinct from the particular teachings of Martin LutherZwingliJohn Calvinand other Protestant Reformers.

Arminius Jacobus Hermanszoon was a student of Beza successor of Calvin at the Theological University of Geneva. Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists in the 16th century, the Methodists in the 18th century and the Seventh-day Adventist Church.

John Wesley was influenced by Arminianism. Also, Arminianism was an important influence in Methodismwhich developed out of the Wesleyan movement. Some assert that Universalists and Unitarians in the 18th and 19th centuries were theologically linked with Arminianism.

The first synagogue sms sending job from home in mumbai the New WorldKahal Zur Israel Synagogueis founded in RecifeBrazil by the Dutch Jews.

The Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue in RecifeBrazilerected inwas the first synagogue erected in the Americas. Its foundations have been recently discovered, and the 20th-century buildings on the site have been altered to resemble a 17th-century Dutch synagogue. Jansenism was a Catholic theological movement, primarily in Francethat emphasized original sinhuman depravitythe necessity of divine graceand predestination. The movement originated from the posthumously published work Augustinus of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansenwho died in It was first popularized by Jansen's friend Abbot Jean Duvergier de Hauranneof Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne Abbeyand after Duvergier's death inwas led by Antoine Arnauld.

Through the 17th and into the 18th centuries, Jansenism was a distinct movement within the Catholic Church. The theological centre of the movement was the convent of Port-Royal Abbey, Pariswhich was a haven for writers including Duvergier, Arnauld, Pierre NicoleBlaise Pascaland Jean Racine.

Congregation Shearith Israelthe Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in the City of New Amsterdamwas founded inthe first Jewish congregation to be established in North America. Its founders were twenty-three Jews, mostly of Spanish and Portuguese origin, who had been living in RecifeBrazil. When the Portuguese defeated the Dutch for control of Recife, and brought with them the Inquisition, the Jews of that area left.

Some returned to Amsterdamwhere they had originated. Others went to places in the Caribbean such as St. One group of twenty-three Jews, after a series of unexpected events, landed in New Amsterdam. After being initially rebuffed by anti-Semitic Governor Peter StuyvesantJews were given official permission to settle in the colony in These pioneers fought for their rights and won permission to remain.

This marks the founding of the Congregation Shearith Israel. In the Dutchmen Hans and Zacharias Janssen father and son is sometimes claimed to have invented the first compound microscope. In Hans LippersheyZacharias Janssen and Jacob Metius created the first practical telescope. A description of Lippershey's instrument quickly reached Galileo Galileiwho created a working unit inwith which he made the observations found in his Sidereus Nuncius of An aerial telescope is a type of very long focal length refracting telescopebuilt in the second half of the 17th century, that did not use a tube.

Instead, the objective was mounted on a pole, tree, tower, building or other structure on a swivel ball-joint. The observer stood on the ground and held the eyepiecewhich was connected to the objective by a string or connecting rod. By holding the string tight and maneuvering the eyepiece, the observer could aim the telescope at objects in the sky.

The idea for this type of telescope may have originated in the late 17th century with the Dutch mathematician, astronomer and physicist Christiaan Huygens and his brother Constantijn Huygens, Jr. Huygens eyepieces consist of two plano-convex lenses with the plane sides towards the eye separated by an air gap. The lenses are called the eye lens and the field lens. The focal plane is located between the two lenses. It was invented by Christiaan Huygens in the late s and was the first compound multi-lens eyepiece.

These eyepieces work well with the very long focal length telescopes in Huygens day they were used with single element long focal length non-achromatic refracting telescopesincluding very long focal length aerial telescopes. This optical design is now considered obsolete since with today's shorter focal length telescopes the eyepiece suffers from short eye relief, high image distortion, chromatic aberration, and a very narrow apparent field of view. Since these eyepieces are cheap to make they can often be found on inexpensive telescopes and microscopes.

Other cemented eyepieces can be damaged by the intense, concentrated light of the Sun. Van Leeuwenhoek created at least 25 microscopesof differing types, of which only nine survive. His simple microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-ground lenses. Those that have survived are capable of magnification up to times. It is suspected that Van Leeuwenhoek possessed units that could magnify up to times. Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalculesand which now referred to as micro-organisms or microbes.

The cycloid pendulum was invented by Christiaan Huygens in Its purpose is to eliminate the lack of isochronism of the ordinary simple pendulum. This is achieved by making the mass point move on a cycloid instead of a circular arc. The pyrometerinvented by Pieter van Musschenbroekis a temperature measuring device.

A simple type uses a thermocouple placed either in a furnace or on the item to be measured. The voltage output of the thermocouple is read from a meter. A Leyden jaror Leiden jaris a device that "stores" static electricity between two electrodes on the inside and outside of a glass jar.

It was the original form of a capacitor originally known as a "condenser". It was invented independently by German cleric Ewald Georg von Kleist on 11 October and by Dutch scientist Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leiden Leyden in — The invention was named for the city.

The Leyden jar was used to conduct many early experiments in electricityand its discovery was of fundamental importance in the study of electricity. Previously, researchers had to resort to insulated conductors of large dimensions to store a charge. The Leyden jar provided a much more compact alternative. Like many early electrical devices, there was no particular use for the Leyden jar at first, other than to allow scientists to do a greater variety of electrical experiments. Benjamin Franklinfor example, used a Leyden jar to store electricity from lightning in his famous kite experiment in By doing so he proved that lightning was really electricity.

The idea for the Leyden jar was discovered independently by two parties: German scientist and jurist Ewald Georg von Kleistand Dutchmen Pieter van Musschenbroek and Andreas Cunaeus. These scientists developed the Leyden jar while working under a theory of electricity that saw electricity as a fluid, and hoped to develop the jar to "capture" this fluid.

In von Kleist lined a glass jar with silver foil, and charged the foil with a friction machine. Kleist was convinced that a substantial electric charge could be collected when he received a significant shock from the device. The effects of this "Kleistian jar" were independently discovered around the same time by Dutch scientists Pieter van Musschenbroek and Cunaeus at the University of Leiden.

Van Musschenbroek communicated on it with the French scientific community where it was called the Leyden jar. The Eisinga Planetarium Royal Eise Eisinga Planetarium was built by Eise Eisinga in his home in FranekerFriesland. It took Eisinga seven years to build his planetariumcompleting it in The orrery still exists and is the world's oldest working planetarium. Kipp's apparatusalso called a Kipp generator, is designed for preparation of small volumes of gases.

It was invented around by Dutch pharmacist Petrus Jacobus Kipp and widely used in chemical laboratories and for demonstrations in schools into the second half of the 20th century. In optical microscopy many objects such as cell parts in protozoansbacteria and sperm tails are essentially fully transparent unless stained and therefore killed. The difference in densities and composition within these objects however often gives rise to changes in the phase of light passing through them, hence they are sometimes called "phase objects".

Using the phase-contrast technique makes these structures visible and allows the study of living specimens. This phase contrast technique proved to be such an advancement in microscopy that Dutch physicist Frits Zernike was awarded the Nobel Prize in The magnetic horn also known as the Van der Meer horn is a high-current, pulsed focusing device, invented by the Dutch physicist Simon van der Meer at CERN.

It selects pions and focuses them into a sharp beam. Its original application was in the context of neutrino physics, where beams of pions have to be tightly focused.

When the pions then decay into muons and neutrinos or antineutrinos, an equally well-focused neutrino beam is obtained. The muons were stopped in a wall of tons of iron and tons of concrete, leaving the neutrinos or antineutrinos to reach the Gargamelle bubble chamber. A golf -like game kolf in Dutch is recorded as taking place on 26 Februaryin a city called Loenen aan de Vecht, where the Dutch played a game with a stick and leather ball.

The winner was whomever hit the ball with the least number of strokes into a target several hundred yards away. Some scholars argue that this game of putting a small ball in a hole in the ground using clubs was also played in 17th-century Netherlands and that this predates the game in Scotland. The Dutch played a significant role in the history of ice skating including speed skating and figure skating.

The first feature of ice skating in a work of art was made in the 15th century. The picture, depicted Saint Lidwinapatron saint of ice skaters, falling on the ice. Another important aspect is a man seen in the background, who is skating on one leg. This means that his skates must have had sharp edges similar to those found on modern ice skates. Until the 17th century, ice skating was mostly used for transportation.

Some of the Stuarts including King Charles II of England who had fled to the Dutch Republic during the Cromwell Royal reign later returned to Britain, bringing with them the new sport.

Upon his return to England inthe King brought two innovations in ice skating — a pair of iron skates and the Dutch roll. The Dutch roll was the first form of a gliding or skating motion made possible by the iron skate's two edges. However, speed skating was the focus of the Dutch, while the English developed modern figure skating.

Speed skatingwhich had developed in the Netherlands in the 17th century, was given a boost by the innovations in skate construction. Speed skating, or speedskating, is a competitive form of skating in which skaters race each other over a certain distance. Types of speed skating are long track speed skatingshort track speed skating and marathon speed skating. In the modern Olympic Gameslong-track speed skating is usually referred to as just "speed skating", while short-track speed skating is known as "short track".

Sailing, also known as yachtingis a sport in which competitors race from point to point, or around a race course, in sail-powered boats. Yachting refers to recreational sailing or boatingthe specific act of sailing or using other water vessels for sporting purposes. The invention of sailing is prehistoric, but the racing of sailing boats is believed to have started in the Netherlands some time in the 17th century.

While living in the Dutch Republic, King Charles II of England fell in love with sailing and intook home the Dutch gifted foot yacht he called Mary. The sport's popularity spread across the British Isles. The world's first yacht club was founded in CorkIreland in The International Skating Union ISU is the international governing body for competitive ice skating disciplines, including figure skatingsynchronized skatingspeed skatingand short track speed skating.

It was founded in ScheveningenNetherlands, inmaking it the oldest governing international winter sport federation [] and one of the oldest international sport federations. The first official World Championships in Speed Skating open to men only directly under the auspices of the ISU were held in Amsterdam in Korfball Korfbal in Dutch is a mixed gender team sportwith similarities to netball and basketball. A team consists of eight players; four female and four male. A team also includes a coach.

It was founded in the Netherlands in by Nico Broekhuysen. The Cruijff Turn also known as Cruyff Turnis a famous dribbling trick in footballwas perfected by the Dutch football player Johan Cruijff for whom the evasive trick was named. To make this move, the player first looks to pass or cross the ball. However, instead of kicking it, he drags the ball behind his planted foot with the inside of his other foot, turns through degrees and accelerates away. The trick was famously employed by Cruijff in the FIFA World Cupfirst seen in the Dutch match against Sweden and soon widely copied.

The foundations for Total Football Dutch: Rinus Michelswho played under Reynolds, later became manager of Ajax and refined the concept into what is known today as "Total Football" Totaalvoetbal in Dutch languageusing it in his training for the Ajax Amsterdam squad and the Netherlands national football team in the s.

Johan Cruyff was the system's most famous exponent. Due to Cruyff's style of play, he is still referred to as the total footballer. The invention of totaalvoetbal helped lay the foundations for the significant successes of Dutch football at both club and international level in the s. During that decade, the Dutch football rose from almost total obscurity to become a powerhouse in world football.

Since then everything looks more or less the same to me…. FC Barcelona and the Spanish national football team play a style of football known as Tiki-taka that has its roots in Total Football. Johan Cruyff founded Tiki-taka commonly spelled tiqui-taca in Spanish during his time as manager of FC Barcelona — The Netherlands revived the construction of canals during the 13th—14th century that had generally been discontinued since the fall of the Roman Empire.

They also contributed in the development of canal construction technology, such as introducing the first flash locks in Europe. The first pound lock in Europe was built by the Dutch in at Vreeswijkwhere a canal from Utrecht joins the river Lek. Around the s, Cornelis Drebbel developed an automatic temperature control system for a furnacemotivated by his belief that base metals could be turned to gold by holding them at a precise constant temperature for long periods of time.

He also used this temperature regulator in an incubator for hatching chickens. Feedback control has been used for centuries to regulate engineered systems. In the 17th century, Drebbel invented one of the earliest devices to use feedbackan chicken incubator that used a damper controlled by a thermostat to maintain a constant temperature. The magic lantern is an optical devicean early type of image projector developed in the 17th century. People have been projecting images using concave mirrors and pin-hole cameras camera obscura since Roman times.

But glass lens technology wasn't sufficiently developed to make advanced optical devices such as telescope and microscope until the 17th century. With pinhole cameras and camera obscura it was only possible to project an image of actual scene, such as an image of the sun, on a surface. The magic lantern on the other hand could project a painted image on a surface, and marks the point where cameras and projectors became two different kinds of devices.

There has been some debate about who the original inventor of the magic lantern is, but the most widely accepted theory is that Christiaan Huygens developed the original device in the late s. He describes a device such as the magic lantern in his book Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae. This is what paved the way for the use of colour and for double-layered slide projections generally used to simulate movement. The first allusion to a 'magic lantern' is by Huygens in the s and he is generally credited with inventing it — though he didn't want to admit it, considering it frivolous.

Huygens was the first to describe a fully functioning magic lanternone he made, and wrote about it in a work in Images were hand painted onto the glass slide until the midth century when photographic slides were employed.

Huygens introduced this curiosity to the Danish mathematician Thomas Walgenstein who realized its commercial value for entertainment and traveled through Europe — mostly France and Italy — demonstrating his machine to foreign princes and selling them replicas for their own amusement.

The forerunner of the modern slide projector as well as moving pictures, magic lanterns retained their popularity for centuries and were also the first optical toy to be used for family entertainment in the home.

In Amsterdam, the Superintendent of the Fire Brigade, Jan van der Heydenand his son Nicholaas took firefighting to its next step with the fashioning of the first fire hose in A gunpowder enginealso known as an explosion engine or Huygens' engineis a type of internal combustion engine using gunpowder as its fuel.

It was considered essentially as the first rudimentary internal combustion piston engine. Gunpowder was inserted into the tube and lit through a small hole at the base, like a cannon. The expanding gasses would drive the piston up the tube until the reached a point near the top. Here, the piston uncovered holes in the tube that allowed any remaining hot gasses to escape. The weight of the piston and the vacuum formed by the cooling gasses in the now-closed cylinder drew the piston back into the tube, lifting a test mass to provide power.

The cylinder was held down to a base where the gunpowder sat, making it a breech loading design. The gasses escaped via two leather tubes attached at the top of the barrel. When the piston reached them the gasses blew the tubes open, and when the pressure fell, gravity pulled the leather down causing the tubes droop to the side of the cylinder, sealing the holes.

The Hollander beater is a machine developed by the Dutch in to produce pulp from cellulose -containing plant fibers. It replaced stamp mills for preparing pulp because the Hollander could produce in one day the same quantity of pulp that a stamp mill could produce in eight. InMaastricht -born chemist Jan Pieter Minckelers used coal gas for lighting and developed the first form of gas lighting. A meat sliceralso called a slicing machinedeli slicer or simply a sliceris a tool used in butcher shops and delicatessens to slice meats and cheeses.

The first meat slicer was invented by Wilhelm van Berkel Wilhelmus Adrianus van Berkel in Rotterdam in A pentode is an electronic device having five active electrodes. The term most commonly applies to a three-grid vacuum tube thermionic valvewhich was invented by the Dutchman Bernhard D. Philishave was the brand name for electric shavers manufactured by the Philips Domestic Appliances and Personal Care unit of Philips in the US, the Norelco name is used.

The Philishave shaver was invented by Philips engineer Alexandre Horowitzwho used rotating cutters instead of the reciprocating cutters that had been used in previous electric shavers. A gyrator is a passivelinear, lossless, two-port electrical network element invented by Tellegen as a hypothetical fifth linear element after the resistorcapacitorinductor and ideal transformer.

Dutch company Gatsometer BVfounded by the s rally driver Maurice Gatsonidesinvented the first traffic enforcement camera. Gatsonides wished to better monitor his speed around the corners of a race track and came up with the device in order to improve his time around the circuit. Because of this, in some countries speed cameras are sometimes referred to as " Gatsos ". They are also sometimes referred to as "photo radar", even though many of them do not use radar.

The first systems introduced in the late s used film camerasreplaced by digital cameras beginning in the late s. Variomatic is the stepless, fully automatic transmission of the Dutch car manufacturer DAForiginally developed by Hub van Doorne.

The Variomatic was introduced in DAFthe first automatic gear box made in the Netherlands. It continues in use in motorscooters. Variomatic was the first commercially successful continuously variable transmissions CVT. A Red light camera is a traffic enforcement camera that captures an image of a vehicle that enters an intersection against a red traffic light.

By automatically photographing such vehicles, the camera produces evidence that assists authorities in their enforcement of traffic laws. The first red light camera system was introduced inusing tubes stretched across the road to detect the violation and trigger the camera. One of the first developers of these red light camera systems was Dutch company Gatsometer BV.

Stochastic cooling is a form of particle beam cooling. It is used in some particle accelerators and storage rings to control the emission of particle beams.

This process uses the electrical signals that the individual charged particles generate in a feedback loop to reduce the tendency of individual particles to move away from other particles in the beam. This technique was invented and applied at the Intersecting Storage Ringsand later the Super Proton Synchrotronat CERN in Geneva, Switzerland by Dutch physicist Simon van der Meer.

By increasing the particle density to close to the required energy, this technique improved the beam quality and, inter alia, brought the discovery of W and Z bosons within reach. The clap skate also called clapskates, slap skates, slapskates is a type of ice skate used in speed skating. Clap skates were developed at the Faculty of Human Movement Sciences of the Vrije Universiteit of Amsterdam, led by Gerrit Jan van Ingen Schenaualthough the idea is much older.

In the 14th century, the Dutch started using wooden platform skates with flat iron bottom runners. The skates were attached to the skater's shoes with leather straps and poles were used to propel the skater. Aroundthe Dutch shifted to a narrow metal double edged blade, so the skater could now push and glide with his feet, eliminating the need for a pole.

A herring buss Dutch: Haring Buis was a type of seagoing fishing vesselused by Dutch and Flemish herring fishermen in the 15th through early 19th centuries. The Buis was first adapted for use as a fishing vessel in the Netherlands, after the invention of gibbing made it possible to preserve herring at sea. The first herring buss was probably built in Hoorn around The last one was built in Vlaardingen in Originally defined as a light, fast sailing vessel used by the Dutch navy to pursue pirates and other transgressors around and into the shallow waters of the Low Countries.

Later, yachts came to be perceived as luxury, or recreational vessels. Fluyta type of sailing vessel originally designed as a dedicated cargo vessel. Originating from the Netherlands in the 16th century, the vessel was designed to facilitate transoceanic delivery with the maximum of space and crew efficiency.

The inexpensive ship could be built in large numbers. This ship class was credited with enhancing Dutch competitiveness in international trade and was widely employed by the Dutch East India Company in the 17th and 18th centuries.

The fluyt was a significant factor in the 17th century rise of the Dutch seaborne empire. Cornelis Corneliszoon was the inventor of the wind-powered sawmill.

Sawing was slow and required strong and durable sawmen. The topsawer had to be the stronger of the two because the saw was pulled in turn by each man, and the lower had the advantage of gravity.

The topsawyer also had to guide the saw to produce a plank of even thickness. This was often done by following a chalkline. Early sawmills adapted the whipsaw to mechanical power, generally driven by a water wheel to speed up the process. The circular motion of the wheel was changed to back-and-forth motion of the saw blade by a pitman thus introducing a term used in many mechanical applications. A pitman is similar to a crankshaft used in reverse.

A crankshaft converts back-and-forth motion to circular motion. Generally only the saw was powered and the logs had to be loaded and moved by hand. An early improvement was the development of a movable carriage, also water powered, to steadily advance the log through the saw blade.

A schooner is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more maststhe foremast being no taller than the rear mast s. Such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century but may not have been called that at the time. Schooners first evolved from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast and estuaries of the Netherlands in the late 17th century. Most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility.

Following arrival of the Dutch-born prince William III the Orange on the British throne, the British Royal Navy built a Royal yacht with a schooner rig inHMS Royal Transport.

This vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Schooners were immediately popular with colonial traders and fishermen in North America with the first documented reference to a schooner in America appearing in Boston port records in According to the language scholar Walter William Skeatthe term schooner comes from scoonwhile the sch spelling comes from the later adoption of the Dutch spelling "schoener".

Another study suggests that a Dutch expression praising ornate schooner yachts in the 17th century, "een schoone Schip", may have led to the term "schooner" being used by English speakers to describe the early versions of the schooner rig as it evolved in England and America. It offered a carriage with sails, of which a little model was preserved in Scheveningen until Around the yearStevin, Maurice and twenty-six others used it on the beach between Scheveningen and Petten.

The carriage was propelled solely by force of wind, and traveled faster than horse-drawn vehicles. A replica of reduced scale of Drebbel's submarine built by the team of the TV-series "Building the Impossible" Cornelius Drebbel was the inventor of the first navigable submarine, [] [] [] [] while working for the British Royal Navy. He designed and manufactured a steerable submarine with a leather-covered wooden frame. Between and Drebbel successfully built and tested two more, successively larger vessels.

The third model had 6 oars and could carry 16 passengers. This model was demonstrated to King James I and several thousand Londoners. The submarine stayed submerged for three hours and could travel from Westminster to Greenwich and back, cruising at a depth of from 12 to 15 feet 3. This submarine was tested many times in the Thamesbut never used in battle. Inthe British boatbuilder Mark Edwards built a wooden submarine based on the original 17th-century version by Drebbel.

This was shown in the BBC TV programme Building the Impossible in November It is a scale working model of the original and was built using tools and construction methods common in 17th century boat building and was successfully tested under water with two rowers at Dorney Lake, diving beneath the surface and being rowed underwater for 10 minutes. Legal considerations prevented its use on the River Thames itself.

Spyker is credited with building and racing the first ever four-wheel racing car in The first four-wheel-drive caras well as hill-climb racer, with internal combustion enginethe Spyker 60 H.

Wilhelmus van Nassouwe Het Wilhelmus is the national anthem of the Netherlands and is the oldest national anthem in the world. The anthem was first written down in during the Dutch Revolt. The Japanese anthem, Kimigayohas the oldest 9th century lyrics, but a melody was only added in the late 19th century, making it a poem rather than an anthem for most of its lifespan.

Although the Wilhelmus was not officially recognised as the Dutch national anthem untilit has always been popular with parts of the Dutch population and resurfaced on several occasions in the course of Dutch history before gaining its present status. Java Man Homo erectus erectus is the name given to hominid fossils discovered in at Trinil — Ngawi Regency on the banks of the Solo River in East JavaIndonesiaone of the first known specimens of Homo erectus.

Columba is a small, faint constellation named in the late sixteenth century. Its name is Latin for dove. It is located just south of Canis Major and Lepus. Columba was named by Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in in order to differentiate the 'unformed stars' of the large constellation Canis Major. Plancius first depicted Columba on the small celestial planispheres of his large wall map of It is also shown on his smaller world map of and on early Dutch celestial globes.

The first person to record the Novaya Zemlya effect was Gerrit de Veera member of Willem Barentsz ' ill-fated third expedition into the polar region. Novaya Zemlyathe archipelago where de Veer first observed the phenomenon, lends its name to the effect. Plancius defined 12 constellations created by Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. Camelopardalis was created by Plancius in to represent the animal Rebecca rode to marry Isaac in the Bible.

One year later, Jakob Bartsch featured it in his atlas. Johannes Hevelius gave it the official name of "Camelopardus" or "Camelopardalis" because he saw the constellation 's many faint stars as the spots of a giraffe. Monoceros is a relatively modern creation. Its first certain appearance was on a globe created by Plancius in or It was later charted by Bartsch as Unicornus in his star chart.

InHuygens became the first person to suggest that Saturn was surrounded by a ring, after Galileo's much less advanced telescope had failed to show rings. Galileo had reported the anomaly as possibly 3 planets instead of one. Inusing a 50 power refracting telescope that he designed himself, Huygens discovered the first of Saturn 's moons, Titan. Kapteyn's Star is a class M1 red dwarf about With a magnitude of nearly 9 it is visible through binoculars or a telescope.

It had the highest proper motion of any star known until the discovery of Barnard's Star in Attention was first drawn to what is now known as Kapteyn's Star by the Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteynin Instudying the proper motions of stars, Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn reported that these were not random, as it was believed in that time; stars could be divided into two streams, moving in nearly opposite directions.

It was later realized that Kapteyn's data had been the first evidence of the rotation of our Galaxywhich ultimately led to the finding of galactic rotation by Bertil Lindblad and Jan Oort.

InDutch astronomer Jan Oort discovered the galactic haloa group of stars orbiting the Milky Way but outside the main disk. InDutch astronomer Jan Oort became the first person to discover evidence of dark matter. Oort proposed the substance after measuring the motions of nearby stars in the Milky Way relative to the galactic plane. He found that the mass of the galactic plane must be more than the mass of the material that can be seen. A year laterFritz Zwicky examined the dynamics of clusters of galaxies and found their movements similarly perplexing.

The first formal proof of the existence of an atmosphere around Titan came inwhen Gerald Kuiper observed Titan with the new McDonald inch 2. This discovery was significant not only because it requires a dense atmosphere with a significant fraction of methane, but also because the atmosphere needs to be chemically evolved, since methane requires hydrogen in the presence of carbonand molecular and atomic hydrogen would have escaped from Titan's weak gravitational field since the formation of the solar system.

Using infrared spectrometry, in the Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper detected carbon dioxide in the Martian atmospherea discovery of biological significance because it is a principal gas in the process of photosynthesis see also: History of Mars observation.

He was able to estimate that the amount of carbon dioxide over a given area of the surface is double that on the Earth. Miranda is the smallest and innermost of Uranus 's five major moons.

It was discovered by Gerard Kuiper on 16 February at McDonald Observatory. Nereidalso known as Neptune II, is the third-largest moon of Neptune and was its second moon to be discovered, on 1 Mayby Gerard Kuiper, on photographic plates taken with the inch telescope at McDonald Observatory.

Further evidence for the existence of the Kuiper belt emerged from the study of comets. That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time.

As they approach the Sun, its heat causes their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space, gradually evaporating them. In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System, they must be replenished frequently. The Kuiper belt was named after Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiperregarded by many as the father of modern planetary sciencethough his role in hypothesising it has been heavily contested.

Inhe proposed the existence of what is now called the Kuiper Belta disk-shaped region of minor planets outside the orbit of Neptunewhich also is a source of short-period comets. In the s and s the Dutch Republic -based scientists in particular Leiden University -based Jan Swammerdam and Nicolas Stenoand Delft -based Regnier de Graaf and Anton van Leeuwenhoek made key discoveries about animal and human reproduction. Their research and discoveries contributed greatly to the modern understanding of the female mammalian reproductive system.

He described the hydrosalpinxlinking its development to female infertility. He was aware of tubal pregnancies, and he surmised that the mammalian egg traveled from the ovary to the uterus through the tube. In his De Mulierum Organis Generatione Inservientibusde Graaf provided the first thorough description of the female gonad and established that it produced the ovum.

De Graaf used the terminology vesicle or egg ovum for what now called the ovarian follicle. Because the fluid-filled ovarian vesicles had been observed previously by others, including Andreas Vesalius and FalloppioDe Graaf did not claim their discovery.

He noted that he was not the first to describe them, but to describe their development. De Graaf was the first to observe changes in the ovary before and after mating and describe the corpus luteum. From the observation of pregnancy in rabbits, he concluded that the follicle contained the oocyte.

The mature stage of the ovarian follicle is called the Graafian follicle in his honour, although others, including Fallopiushad noticed it previously but failed to recognize its reproductive significance.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is often considered to be the father of microbiology. Robert Hooke is cited as the first to record microscopic observation of the fruiting bodies of moldsin However, the first observation of microbes using a microscope is generally credited to van Leeuwenhoek. In the s, he observed and researched bacteria and other microorganismsusing a single-lens microscope of his own design.

In the British microscopist Brian J. Ford found that Leeuwenhoek's original specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Society of London. Ford carried out observations with a range of microscopes, adding to our knowledge of Leeuwenhoek's work. Photosynthesis is a fundamental biochemical process in which plants, algaeand some bacteria convert sunlight to chemical energy.

The process was discovered by Jan Ingenhousz in Ultimately, nearly all living things depend on energy produced from photosynthesis. It is also responsible for producing the oxygen that makes animal life possible. Organisms that produce energy through photosynthesis are called photoautotrophs. Plants are the most visible representatives of photoautotrophs, but bacteria and algae also employ the process.

Martinus Beijerinck is considered one of the founders of virology. Inhe published results on his filtration experiments, demonstrating that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by an infectious agent smaller than a bacterium.

His results were in accordance with similar observations made by Dmitri Ivanovsky in Like Ivanovsky and Adolf Mayerpredecessor at WageningenBeijerinck could not culture the filterable infectious agent.

He concluded that the agent can replicate and multiply in living plants. He named the new pathogen virus to indicate its non-bacterial nature. This discovery is considered to be the beginning of virology. InCornelis van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green sulfur bacteriahe was the first scientist to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light-dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.

His discovery predicted that H 2 O is the hydrogen donor in green plant photosynthesis and is oxidized to O 2. The chemical summation of photosynthesis was a milestone in the understanding of the chemistry of photosynthesis. This was later experimentally verified by Robert Hill.

Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour throughout history. Ethology has its scientific roots in the work of Charles Darwin and of American and German ornithologists of the late 19th and early 20th century, including Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, and Wallace Craig. The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the s with the work of Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and by Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch.

Tinbergen's four questionsnamed after Nikolaas Tinbergenone of the founders of modern ethologyare complementary categories of explanations for behaviour. The Vroman effectnamed after Leo Vromanis exhibited by protein adsorption to a surface by blood serum proteins. Flemish physician Jan Baptist van Helmont is sometimes considered the founder of pneumatic chemistrycoining the word gas and conducting experiments involving gases.

Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff is generally considered to be one of the founders of the field of stereochemistry. InVan 't Hoff built on the work on isomers of German chemist Johannes Wislicenusand showed that the four valencies of the carbon atom were probably directed in space toward the four corners of a regular tetrahedron, a model which explained how optical activity could be associated with an asymmetric carbon atom.

He shares credit for this with the French chemist Joseph Le Belwho independently came up with the same idea. Three months before his doctoral degree was awarded Van 't Hoff published this theory, which today is regarded as the foundation of stereochemistryfirst in a Dutch pamphlet in the fall ofand then in the following May in a small French book entitled La chimie dans l'espace. A German translation appeared inat a time when the only job Van 't Hoff could find was at the Veterinary School in Utrecht.

In these early years his theory was largely ignored by the scientific community, and was sharply criticized by one prominent chemist, Hermann Kolbe. However, by about support for Van 't Hoff's theory by such important chemists as Johannes Wislicenus and Viktor Meyer brought recognition. Jacobus van 't Hoff is also considered as one of the modern founders of the disciple of physical chemistry. Together with Svante Arrheniusthese were the leading figures in physical chemistry in the late 19th century and early 20th century.

It was proposed by Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff in The Van 't Hoff plotwhich is derived from this equation, is especially effective in estimating the change in enthalpyor total energy, and entropyor amount of disorder, of a chemical reaction.

The van 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when the substance is dissolved, and the concentration of a substance as calculated from its mass.

In carbohydrate chemistrythe Lobry de Bruyn—van Ekenstein transformation is the base or acid-catalyzed transformation of an aldose into the ketose isomer or vice versa, with a tautomeric enediol as reaction intermediate. The transformation is relevant for the industrial production of certain ketoses and was discovered in by Cornelis Adriaan Lobry van Troostenburg de Bruyn and Willem Alberda van Ekenstein. The Prins reaction is an organic reaction consisting of an electrophilic addition of an aldehyde or ketone to an alkene or alkyne followed by capture of a nucleophile.

Dutch chemist Hendrik Jacobus Prins discovered two new organic reactionsboth now carrying the name Prins reaction. The first was the addition of polyhalogen compounds to olefinswas found during Prins doctoral research, while the others, the acid-catalyzed addition of aldehydes to olefinic compounds, became of industrial relevance. Dutch physicist Dirk Coster and Hungarian-Swedish chemist George de Hevesy co-discovered Hafnium Hf inby means of X-ray spectroscopic analysis of zirconium ore.

Hafnium' is named after Hafnia', the Latin name for Copenhagen Denmarkwhere it was discovered. The crystal bar process also known as iodide process or the van Arkel—de Boer process was developed by Dutch chemists Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in It was the first industrial process for the commercial production of pure ductile metallic zirconium.